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No. 59 Jan. 1916 

THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 
THOMAS H. BRIGGS 

Assoociate Professor of Education 
Teachers College, Columbia University 

Professor Briggs addressed the Association at the May, 191 5, meeting on 
the junior high school. This address formed a part of the chapter on secondary 
education which he had prepared for the 1914 report of the United 
States Commissioner of Education. In the subsequent discussion, Professor 
Briggs seemed to be in favor of the separate junior high school chiefly because 
of the opportunity it would give to re-make thf curriculum of secondary schools 
without the influence of the academic traditions of the high schools. We take 
pleasure in presenting to the members of the Association the address of 
Professor Briggs. 

Mr. Charles S. Harrwell, of the Eastern District High School, was one 
of the originial advocates of the six-and-six plan. His article traces the early 
history of the movement for the junior high school and recounts the part this 
city has taken in it. 

Mr. Joseph Abelson, of the High School of Commerce, who has been 
making a special study of the junior high school, shows in his paper how the 
junior high schools may serve in the re-organization of the school system. Mr. 
Abelson has also prepared the extensive bibliography on the junior high school 
which is printed in this Bulletin. 

In a subsequent number of the Bulletin, the editors hope to present some 
of the objections to the establishment of the junior high school in New Y ork 
City. Members of the Association are requested to submit their opinions on 
the subject. Such communications should be sent to the Chairman of the 
Editorial Committee, E. Van B. Knickerbocker, 36 St. Nicholas Place, 
Manhattan. 

Although among the variations in the organization of American 
schools there have doubtless many times been approximations to the 
junior high school, or intermediate school, the present movement 
toward an equal division of the 12 years of general education between 
the elementary and the secondary schools seems to have been initi- 



4 THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 

ated by E. W. Lyttle, who at the National Education Association 
In 1905 argued that "secondary education should begin as soon as 
the elementary pupil has acquired the tools with which he may gain 
a higher education." Subsequent to this address the Department of 
Secondary Education appointed on the subject a standing committee 
of five, which, under Mr. Lyttle and G. P. Morrison as chairmen, 
reported to the association in 1907, 1908, and 1909. The first two 
reports presented arguments, both educational and economic, for 
the establishment of the six-year high school; the last one, after 
quoting from letters by prominent schoolmen who after more or less 
experience favored the organization, declared that "the change to 
a six-six division is inevitable ; it is now taking place in various ways 
to meet local conditions." The movement has had further impulse 
since then by the reports of the Committee on Economy of Time in 
Education and of the Commission on the Reorganization of Second- 
ary Education. 

However strong the arguments for annexing two years to the 
high-school period, such a change could hardly be successful unless 
at the same time there were dissatisfaction with the work now gener 
ally done in the seventh and eighth grades Such dissatisfaction 
there is in abundance The distribution of eight years to the ele- 
mentary school and four to the high school is pretty generally ac- 
cepted as an accident, finding no justification in comparative educa- 
tion, psychology, or the logical demands of local conditions. Besides 
this, the curriculum of the elementary school has become hopelessly 
congested, both by the introduction of subjects new to any curricula, 
and by the adoption, usually under stress, of subjects formerly 
taught in secondary school. Most, if not all, of these subjects are 
now so firmly established that the attack on "school fads," usually 
coupled with a demand for a "return to the three R's," is received 
with small sympathy by schoolmen or by the public. With an in- 
creasingly complex social and economic life, the school can never 
return to the old simple form of education. Those defending the 
newer subjects declare that there would be ample time for all useful 
matter in the upper grades if there should be eliminated from such 
subjects as grammar and arithmetic the formal phases that can be 
justified only by tradition or by a belief in the discredited doctrine 
of formal discipline, and if they would put a stop to the wasteful and 
futile reviews that now occupy so much of the energy of these last 
years of the elementary school. It is charged, moreover, that there 
is a lack of real progress in the seventh and eighth grades, and that 
the; large mortality of pupils in the first year of high school is due 
not to the arbitrary course or to the poor teaching in the upper 
school, but rather to the fact that the preparing school has not done 
its full duty. 

Another charge pretty generally made against the usual organiza- 
tion of our schools is that it causes too sharp a break after the eighth 
grade, that the elementary school courses lead nowhere, neither to 
the secondary school, nor to competent work in the world. Worse 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 5 

still, the break comes for a great many children about the time that 
the compulsory education law ceases to hold them in school and for 
the majority at the time when the changes concomitant with early 
adolescence are logically demanding satisfaction. At this time the 
demand for differential courses must be met or children leave 
school. The justification of the usual single course for all children 
has usually rested on a profession that democracy should afford an 
equal opportunity to all; but inasmuch as children of this age differ 
so markedly in ability, interests, and ambitions, democracy is fair 
only if it offers to each pupil what will best advance him in his pecu- 
liar development. The persistence of the traditional organization of 
the upper grades results in an annual loss of an impressive army of 
children, none of whom will contribute to society as well as if the 
school had adapted itself to his needs. The aggregate loss is tre- 
mendous. For all of these reasons, alleged and actual, the argu- 
ments for the new organization have been heard by schoolmen and 
by the lay public with unusual hospitality. 

The Name and Defintion 

Two names have been used for the new organization, the junior 
high school and the intermediate school, the latter being general in 
California, the former in most other parts of the country. There are 
obvious arguments for and against each ; Supt. Cary, of Wisconsin, 
for example, perfers the name intermediate school, declaring that — 
one high school is enough in the minds of the people. This sort 
of school is "intermediate" between the grades and the high school 
and is not either grade work, as we now understand grade work, 
or high-school work, as we know high-school work. 

On the other hand, this same is likely to suggest grades 4 to 6 of 
the elementary school ; while the name junior high school is more or 
less self-explanatory, it parallels the term junior college, and it is 
especially attractive to the children. Inasmuch as the organization, 
like the name, varies, a definition must be arbitrarily made. Al- 
though by some it is held that the junior high school, or the inter- 
mediate school should admit all children of 12 years, regardless of 
educational advancement, it is defined for the purposes of this report 
as an organisation of grades 7 and 8 or 7 to 9 to provide by various 
means for individual differences, especially by an earlier introduction 
of prevocational work and of subjects usually taught in the high 
school. A definition on the basis of a^e is preferred by Commis- 
sioner Snedden, of Massachusetts, who predicts 100 junior high 
schools in that State within five years. 

Approximation in the Upper Grades to the Junior 
High School 

It will be seen at once that in the usual organization of the upper 
grades, especially in our better schools, there are frequently included 
some of the elements suggested by the definition above. Depart- 



6 THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 

mental teaching, for instance, which is customary in the junior high 
school, is frequently found in the upper grades. It is the practice to 
have special teachers of music, drawing, physical culture, and all 
forms of industrial work; and, in addition to these, there is an in- 
creasing number of teachers who give instruction only in those aca- 
demic subjects in which they are strongest. The advantages of the 
plan are obvious ; the chief objection seems to be that a child among 
several teachers may have no one who will be his especial adviser 
and friend. This objection is anticipated by wise superintendents, 
who provide through a system of "home rooms" especial oversight 
to each pupil. It is infrequent, moreover, that in the upper grades 
there are as many teachers as subjects ; in fact, one principle to be 
observed provides that the increase in the number of teachers for 
each child shall be gradual. 

The usual organization of the upper grades frequently includes 
some industrial work, too — sewing or cooking for the girls and some 
one of the various forms of manual work for the boys. The differ- 
ence seems to lie in this, that the elementary school offers such work 
for the most part of general culture, whereas the junior high school 
offers it especially as prevocational training. Of course, there are 
exceptions to this statement ; indeed, the tendency everywhere seems 
to be toward discarding exercises of a type that do not frequently 
reappear in life, and toward consciously presenting the subject so 
that a pupil finds out his own aptitude and interest in it. The upper 
grades sometimes, but far less often, include also commercial 
branches, the elements of algebra, and some foreign language, most 
frequently German, 

The question is often asked, why, if such differentiation is already 
begun in many elementary schools, there is any need for the new 
organization. From the fact that only a relatively few elementary 
schools have introduced even one of the subjects mentioned above 
and that nearly all of the junior high schools offer a number of them 
it would seem that it is easier to introduce such subjects in a new 
organization than in the old. Moreover, there are other desirable 
elements of the junior high school that no reform of the upper 
grades can achieve ; these elements are discussed later in this 
article. 

Many of the junior high schools, it must be said, are educational 
accidents. Occasionally the pupils of the first year in the high school 
have been segregated with those from the seventh and eighth grades 
in order to relieve congestion in the high-school building ; in a larger 
number of cases, a new high-school building having been erected, the 
pupils of the upper grades, with or without those in the first year of 
the high school, are placed in the old building, which usually, besides 
being too good to be destroyed, is well adapted for such work. To this 
organization the school authorities have added various educational 
reforms with the result that a new type of school has been created. 
In many private schools and in a smaller number of small public high 
schools containing under one roof all the grades from the first to the 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 7 

tenth or twelfth, reorganization has been effected so that the essen- 
tials of the junior high school are incorporated into grades seven to 
nine. The success of these ventures, supported by educational theory, 
has stimulated other school systems to establish junior high schools 
with new buildings suitably located, teachers fitted especially for the 
work, and a progrom of studies markedly different from that ordi- 
narily found. Los Angeles typifies this class. 

The very general approval of the plan to reorganize our educa- 
tional system so as to include junor high schools is significant of the 
trend of sentiment. Representative of sources of approval are the 
following: All but one of the school surveys published during the 
year, the one exception being in a city that had just erected a new 
$500,000 high-school building; the University of Minnesota, which 
by resolution passed by its faculty and its board of regents in 1914 
recommends the organization "as soon as local conditions will ad- 
mit" ; the Inland Empire Teachers Association, which indorsed the 
plan by a unanimous viva voce vote after an address by Commis- 
sioner Claxton ; a committee appointed by the Association of City 
Superintendents of Wisconsin to study the plan ; the National Coun- 
cil of Teachers of English, which is using the 6 — 3 — 3 division in the 
study of the teaching of English ; the North Central Association ; 
and numerous public addresses and articles in educational magazines. 

Advantages Claimed for the Junior High School. 

There are four major claims made for the junior high school; 
First, that it provides better for individual differences ; second, that 
it makes easier the transition to the high school; third, that it de- 
creases the number of pupils eliminated from the school system; 
and fourth, that it furnishes an opportunity for various reforms 
in instruction. The need for provision for individual differences, 
especially at the period of early adolescence, will be recognized by 
all who are cognizant of the studies made by psychologists during the 
past two decades. The possibility of securing homogenity of 
groups is determined for the most part by the aggregate number 
of children assembled ; consequently, when all of the children of the 
seventh, eighth, and ninth grades in a system of schools are col- 
lected in one building, especially if departmental teaching and pro- 
motion by subject are provided, the grouping can be far more satis- 
factory for differential subject matter and instruction. The mere 
fact that all of the children in such an organization as the junior high 
school are so closely grouped in physiological, chronological, and 
mental ages is said also to make discipline much easier. In such a 
school it is possible in various ways to test each child and thereby 
to find what are his natural interests, his ambitions, and his capaci- 
ties. Moreover, he can be introduced to several subjects seldom 
taught in the grammar grades and learn himself if he have aptitudes 
in them. If, after fair trial, it is found that a certain child has no 
ability in a subject of study or that it is not likely to forward him in 
the career which he has chosen, he can be directed to a course better 



8 THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 

for him. This exploration, if begun in the seventh or eighth year of 
school, reaches more children, and time lost here is not so material 
as it is when the children are two or three years nearer the end of 
the schooling afforded by the local community. 

By the definition arbitrarily made of the junior high school, it 
offers certain subjects usually found only in the high school, subjects 
like one or more foreign languages, mathematics beyond arithmetic, 
and prevocational studies, either commercial or industrial. It is felt 
by those who have most interest in the future of Latin that under 
the usual organization either too much or too little time is given to it, 
that in four years it is impossible to prepare youth for the college 
requirements in Latin and at the same time make the subject con- 
tribute the maximum of the cultural elements of which it is possible. 
The modern foreign languages are said to be acquired better if 
begun at 12 than at 14 or 15 ; whether they are or are not it seems 
necessary for them to be introduced earlier, if they are to become 
working tools. The mathematician pleads that the character of 
mathematics should be changed after the sixth grade, first, because 
by that time the fundamental processes have been mastered ; second, 
because of the lack of logic in the present sharp divisions after arith- 
metic and algebra ; and, third, because of the greater success in all 
other civilized countries under the proposed redistribution of subject 
matter.* The introductory work in prevocational subjects is justified 
by the fact that each child taking it gets something of practical 
value, that it reaches a far larger number than when introduced in 
the ninth year, that it gives each child a more intelligent understand- 
ing of the work of the world, and that it acquaints him with the 
possibilities in the subjects and in himself. For several of these 
reasons it would seem that the logical place for general science also 
is in the first two years of the junior high school. 

Finally, so far as individual differences are concerned, the larger 
number of pupils collected into one organization makes possible bet- 
ter provisions for children with varying degrees of ability and indus- 
try. Wherever there have been organized "flying squadrons" of 
exceptional children, they have been collected from a large area into 
one building. There is no reason why the children with superior 
intellectual endowments should not be permitted and encouraged to 
save a considerable part of the secondary school period and at the 
same time to do the work better than their less fortunate brothers. 
Neither skipping a grade nor carrying an extra subject is satisfac- 
tory ; but accelerant groups have proved economical in every respect. 
There are in all systems, too, children who learn slowly. If placed in 
classes formed regardless of the ability of the pupils, they inevitably 
retard the progress of the work, learn little themselves, and often fail 
of promotion. For such children repeating the work is far from satis- 
factory ; an unpublished study recently made at Teachers College by 
John R. Riley of some eight thousand cases shows that after repeat- 
in? and passing a course in which they had failed, 33 per cent of the 
children who continued the subject failed again the next semester. 
It may be assumed that at least a majority of those who were 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL FOR INCREASED ECONOMY 



V?U^ 



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AND EFFICIENCY 

Charles S. Hartwell 
Eastern District High School, Brooklyn 



In conversation with a new chair- 
man in the Board of Education the 
writer stated his belief that, if the five 
million dollars proposed by the Board 
of Estimate for the introduction of the 
Gary system should be divided into three 
sums and allowed for the use or experi- 
mentation of the Gary, Ettinger, and 
Junior High School systems, in two 
years it could become apparent that one 
million dollars spent to introduce Junior 
High Schools would go farther and ac- 
complish more than two million dollars 
with either the Gary or the Ettinger 
system. 

Now, what could be done with one 
million dollars and the Junior High 
School system ? 

The long standing injustice to teachers 
in the seventh and eighth years could be 
removed and the best efforts of these 
teachers requited. 

In the departmental estimates for 1916 
there is an item for promotions to grades 
of the last two years in elementary 
schools : 
To fill vacancies existing May 31, 

1915 $261,480 

To fill vacancies in fall term of 191 5, 
persons not in service May 31, 

1915 31,200 

For 1916 appointments 17,150 



Total $309,830 

This measure of justice might be the 

first item. 

The number of pupils on register in 

November, 191 5, the latest available 

figures, in the seventh and eighth years 

is as follows : 



Manhattan 43,763 

Bronx 1 7,548 

Brooklyn 46,927 

Queens 10,686 

Richmond 2,577 



New York City 121,501 

For the same month of November, 
1915, there were in the ninth year or 
the first high school year, 13J652 boys 
and 14,752 girls, or 28,404 pupils. Add- 
ing these 28,404 ninth year pupils to the 
121,501 seventh and eighth year pupils 
reveals the fact that New York City 
has 149,905 pupils in the seventh, eighth 
and ninth years or the period contem- 
plated by the normal form of the Junior 
High School. 

This was three months ago and we 
may fairly say that this city has 150,000 
pupils ready for the Junior High 
School. 

Allowing 1,500 pupils to a building, 
the city needs 100 buildings to house the 
Junior High School pupils. 

Now all the. seventh and eighth year 
pupils and nearly half ; the ninth year 
pupils are already housed in elementary 
school buildings. These buildings cost 
only abdut one-third as much as high 
■ school buildings. If the sixteen thousand 
ninth year pupils still in high school 
buildings should be placed in elementary 
school buildings, no more high school 
buildings need be erected for probably 
ten years. Ninth year pupils are not 
ready for the expensive laboratories of 
the high schools. 

Restricting these expensive plants to 
pupils above the ninth year would save 



r. ' — 



■-JL. 



the city at least $500,000 a year in differ- 
ence of cost for housing of ninth year 
pupils. 

The next step would be the definite 
assignment of existing buildings to the 
Junior High School period for pupils of 
the seventh, eighth and ninth years. 
Pupils of these grades can walk farther 
without danger or inconvenience than 
the younger ones. Take Manhattan, for 
example. Of the one hundred Junior 
High Schools, its quota would be about 
thirty-six. Suppose the following build- 
ings be devoted exclusively to these 
three years; P. S. 95, 114, 62, 174, 4, 
97, 12, 61, 40, 50, 27, 183, 190, 100, 150, 
83, 24, 90, 159, 33, 17, 94, 93, 157 and 
115. These 25 buildings are distributed 
at convenient intervals thruout districts 
9» h 2, 3> 5- 4, 7, 8, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 
2i, 20, io> 11, 14, 18, 19 and 22. Dis- 
trict lines need not be adhered to for 
Junior anymore than for Senior high 
school pupils. Nor is it absolutely es- 
sential that the Junior high schools 
should be entirely separated from the 
lower grades. If, for example, the 
above 25 buildings could be devoted 
completely to Junior high school work 
the other eleven buildings required for 
Manhattan in the more congested dis- 
tricts might have lower grade pupils as 
well and in similar proportion, not to 
make too radical a departure, the same 
might be true for the other boros. If 
about sixty present buildings scattered 
not more than two in a district should 
be devoted exclusively to the seventh, 
eighth and ninth years the forty others 
required may for the present be con- 
nected with lower grade work. 

The Principals designated to super- 
vise these one hundred Junior high 
schools should have $250 more for the 
extra care of the ninth year. This would 



involve an expense of nearly $25,000 a 
year in addition to the present. The 
teachers of the ninth year would be reg- 
ular high school teachers and, until a 
new system of licenses could be evolved, 
the teachers of the seventh year and 
eighth year would be on their present 
schedule. Each teacher in the Junior 
high school should have two subjects 
either in the first two years or in the 
last or ninth year. 

By placing all Junior as well as Senior 
high schools on double or eleven period 
sessions, from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m., the cost 
of new buildings would be practically 
eliminated. The present small classes in 
the upper grades would also be consoli- 
dated into full sections at a considerable 
saving of expense. 

Moreover, in the Junior high school, 
promotion by subject would advance 
many pupils who now repeat an entire 
grade because of deficiency in certain 
subjects. This evil has been eliminated 
from the high schools and it will be a 
real saving to< the city to have the same 
method of promotion extended two 
years farther down. 

Each major subject should be taken 
daily in the Junior high school. This 
one fact will simplify the program and 
conduce to more efficient teaching in 
every subject. At present some of the 
more difficult subjects come only two or 
three times a week, requiring each teacher 
to have more sections and therefore more 
pupils to know and mark papers for. 

As one of the three years involved is 
now recognized as high school work 
and in many cases supervised as an an- 
nex by a First Assistant from a High 
School, with a bonus which makes his 
full salary $100 less than a Junior high 
school principal's would be with the ad- 
ditional $250 proposed, it would be right 



that at least thirty of the one hundred 
schools should be in charge of First 
Assistants, while the other seventy are 
managed by elementary school principals 
with high school experience. 

In the Speyer School or Annex to 
P. S. 43, Manhattan, in P. S. 69, Man- 
hattan, and P. S. 85, Brooklyn, the Junior 
high school idea is already being applied. 
In so far as the course is shortened by 
beginning high school subjects in the 
seventh instead of in the ninth year, a 
real economy is achieved which it may 
be difficult to express in money saved. 

During last December, besides the 
regular twenty- four high school build- 
ings, at least thirty-four annexes were 
occupied by high school pupils. In these 
annexes were n,937 pupils of whom 
only in the Julia Richman, Eastern Dis- 
trict, and one or two other schools were 
any pupils beyond the ninth year, so 
that it may fairly be said the line of 
cleavage is gradually being made between 
the ninth and tenth years. Nor is this 
unnatural, as choice of languages in 
high schools is made at the end of the 
ninth year. 

The principle is sound that during the 
period of compulsory education the state 
should provide a seat for every child. 
After fourteen less injustice is done by 
double or partial sessions. The older 
pupils may study at home and come to 
school for recitation and instruction only. 
By separating ninth year pupils from the 
Senior high schools no truant officers 
will be required for the regular high 
schools and only in the Junior high 
schools would identification cards be 
needed in the case of double sessions. 
By placing all pupils above the sixth 
year on double sessions the designation 
of twenty-five elementary school build- 
ings each in Manhattan and in Brooklyn, 



and twenty-five more in the other three 
boros combined, would, with the twenty- 
five regular high school buildings, ac- 
commodate for the present all pupils 
in the city above the sixth year. 

The Junior high school system does 
not require enlarged auditoriums and 
the remodeling of present buildings. 
Pupils who elect vocational or trade edu- 
cation should be housed in buildings 
already thus equipped. There will then 
be no temptation to speculative rise in 
plots for additions, which makes the 
extension of the Gary system so complex 
and dangerous a problem. 

Summing up the economical elements^ 
we note practically no expense for nevt 
buildings or remodeling, slight expense 
for additional supervision, considerable 
expense to keep faith with eighth and 
ninth year teachers by legitimate promo- 
tions, no advanced salary schedules, sav- 
ing of time by extending promotion by 
subjects two years down, more compact 
and larger sections by consolidation of 
upper grades. For the present one or 
two floors of the high school buildings 
may under double sessions be devoted 
to Junior high schools and thus reduce 
the number of elementary school build- 
ings required. 

The limits of this article will not per- 
mit detailed discussion of the efficiency 
of Junior high schools. With no sug- 
gestion of steel, oil, or trade influence 
the following organizations have gone 
on record as favoring the "six-three- 
three plan" : Department of Superin- 
tendance of the National Educational 
Association, the National Bureau of 
Education, the North Central Asso- 
ciation of Colleges and Secondary 
Schools, the National Association of 
State Universities, the committee on 
economy of time in education of the 



National Council of Education, the com- 
mittee on the leorganization of secondary 
education of the secondary department 
of the National Education Association, 
the School Superintendents of the State 
of Wisconsin, the State Department of 
Michigan, and neaily all the committees 
on school surveys which have reported. 
Dr. P. P. Claxton, U. S. Commissioner 
of Education, heartily endorses the 
Junior high school, and it is in practical 
operation in about two hundred cities 
and towns. 

The High School Teachers Associa- 
tion of New York City has just issued 
a bulletin with a bibliography of a hun- 
dred articles on Junior high schools pre- 
pared by Mr. Joseph Abelson of the High 
School of Commerce. The School Review 
for February, 1916, has an able article 
on "A Junior High School" by Superin- 
tendent Herbert S. Weet of Rochester, 
N. Y. The June number of the Peda- 
gogical Seminary for 191 5 summarizes 
the situation. In School and Home, pub- 
lished at Bloomington, Illinois, is Mr. 
W. C. Bagley's argument against the 
Junior high school. In the Elementary 

— Reprinted 



School Journal and the Scnool Review 
for the past two years are a number of 
articles dealing with this matter. In 
the Thirty-Ninth Annual Report of the 
Board of Education for Columbus, Ohio, 
for 1912, at pages 169-192, may be 
found, Mr C H Fullerton's able discus- 
sion of the theory and practical work- 
ings of the Junior High School. 

In conclusion, the writer has not at- 
tempted to figure the precise expense of 
the introduction of the Junior high 
school into New York City. Instead of 
60,000 pupils under a high school com- 
mittee and 770,000 under an elementary 
school committee, he believes it better 
administration to place 200,000 under the 
high school committee. The state de- 
partment has. declared for a six years 
elementary course and the organization 
of the seventh and eighth years under 
semi-departmental teachers, with the 
earlier introduction of differentiated sub- 
jects during the compulsory period, is 
fraught with most beneficial possibilities 
to our youth and the cause of education. 
Both economy and efficiency will be pro- 
moted by this form of reorganization. 

from THE AMERICAN TEACHER, March, 1916. 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 9 

"passed" after taking the course a second time would have failed 
had they pursued the subject further. It is in no way fair to doom 
perhaps a fifth of our pupils to he loss of spirit and ambition by 
sending them to inevitable failuve- T+ is often argued that slow- 
moving children need the stimulus better workers in the same 
classes. This may be true if they move slowly through laziness ; it is 
contrary to life in all of its other phases if it is due to lack of ability. 
Of the many provisions that have been made for children with vary- 
ing ability to progress none seems better than that at the Manual 
Training High School of Indianapolis. There in certain subjects at 
least one group is formed of children whose record shows that they 
are able to do the work of three semesters in two, and at least one 
group who will need three semesters for the work that the majority 
of pupils do in two-thirds of that time. 

The second claim, that the new organization makes easier the 
transition of pupils to the high school, has abundant theoretical sup- 
port. The actual results depend, of course, on the completeness with 
which the details are adapted and administered. That the change 
between the elementary and the high school should be so sharp as it 
usually is permits of no general justification. The small understand- 
ing of what the subjects are that the high school presents ; the antici- 
pation of exchanging one teacher with whom there is a thorough 
understanding for several strangers ; the prospect of leaving a near- 
by building in which he has had one room that he could call his home, 
and in which he has been a senior more or less lording it over chil- 
dren from one to seven years younger than himself ; of leaving this 
comfortable building for another perhaps in a remote part of the city 
and there shifting hourly from strange room to stranger laboratory; 
the contemplation of the new atmosphere, the new ideals, and the 
new methods used — all these may stimulate the desire of some chil- 
dren to enter the high school; by pretty general testimony they ter- 
rorize many more. This larger group of children have "finished" 
reading, language, arithmetic, and other subjects traditional in the 
elementary school, and far too often they have no desire to enter 
another long campaign, the results of which have by common rumor 
been disastrous to so many friends who have tried it before. In all 
reports of attempts to "bridge the gap" by an earlier introduction 
of high-chool subjects, the methods of teaching, or the larger respon- 
sibility of the secondary school, whether the introduction be into 
the junior high school or into the upper grades of the old organiza- 
tion, greatly improved results are claimed. It is difficult to measure 
such results ; but it is reasonable that they should follow, and ob- 
servation of a considerable number of schools that have made such 
changes as are noted above leaves a strong impression that they are 
generally achieved. 

The third claim, that the junior high-school organization decreases 
elimination, is based in theory largely on the sharp break discussed 
in the preceding paragraph. There is no question that the elimina- 
tion after the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades has been one of the 
greatest of the reproaches to oiir educational system. Consequently 
any plan that promises to retain children in school beyond these 



10 THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 

grades is worthy of the most careful consideration. Not only is the 
present break after the elementary school too sharp ; it also coincides 
in perhaps the majority of cases with the onset of adolescence and 
the end of the period of education compulsory by law. It is claimed 
that the junior high school, which receives the pupil usually before 
the law permits him to leave school, should for two reasons hold him 
better to the end of the course and then increase the chances of his 
going on with his education. In the first place, it affords no con- 
venient stopping point ; and, in the second, it is organized and ad- 
ministered for the individual adolscent. Of the number of prin- 
cipals of junior high schools reporting, 107 declare that the organi- 
zation does retain pupils in school better than the older plan, and 
2 say that it does not. To the 3 who say frankly that they do not 
know what the effect on elimination is should probably be added 
all those who fail to answer the question. There are few published 
comparisons of the exact saving effected by the new organization. 
Supt. Francis in 1912 declared that in Los Angeles only 18 per 
cent of the pupils in the ninth grade of the junior high school failed, 
as compared with 42 per cent of those in the ninth grade of the high 
schools. 

Prinicpal W. B. Clark, of the McKinley Intermediate School, 
Berkeley, furnishes data showing that since the establishment of the 
school 94.73 per cent of the pupils completing the eighth grade have 
entered the ninth, and 95.29 per cent of those completing the ninth 
grade have entered the tenth. Principal Preston, of the Franklin 
Intermediate School, Berkeley, reports that of the last seven classes 
completing the eighth grade under the old organization 40.53 per 
cent entered the high school, and that of the first six classes com- 
pleting the eighth grade of the intermediate school there entered the 
ninth grade of the same school 65.53 per cent, not counting those 
who were transferred from other buildings.* Principal Paul C. Stat- 
son states that 86 per cent of the pupils in the eighth grade in the 
Grand Rapids junior high school last year entered the senior high 
school, as compared with 76 per cent of the eighth grades in the 
grammar schools of the city. In Evansville, Ind., according to Prin- 
cipal Ernest P. Wiles, only 56 per cent of the pupils completing the 
eighth grade in 1912 entered the high school, as against 84 per cent 
last year of the pupils in the junior high school. 

The last of the four major claims for the junior high school is that 
it furnishes an opportunity for various reforms in instruction. This 
implies what has not been obvious in all discussions of the subject, 
that the junior high school is not a sure cure for all ills in our 
educational system, but that it affords an opportunity for introduc- 
ing reforms which might in a traditional situation be more diffi- 
cult. It should be frankly admitted that the division of the 12 
years of common schooling into two equal parts is not the one 
essential to educational advance ; but in a new organization a 
course of study based on the newer principles of psychology, so- 
ciology, and economics, various provisions for individual differ- 
ences, and especially an improved method of teaching can more 
easily be introduced. The governing principles of this improved 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 1 1 

method have been set forth in a number of the newer books — in 
none better perhaps than in John Dewey's "How We Think" 
and in his "Interest and Effort in Education." These principles 
are concretely applied in the "project method," which is being 
developed in the teaching of a number of subjects of secondary 
education. Marshall, Wright, and Field, for instance, have writ- 
ten "Outlines of Economics Developed in a Series of Problems"; 
the State of Massachusetts has issued bulletins such as "Agri- 
cultural Project Study," "Agricultural Project Study Bibliog- 
raphy," and "Project Study Outlines for Vegetable Growing;" 
and projects are introduced as exercises in several of the newer 
textbooks.* With a definite program for reform, a principal is 
likely to find marked help in a junior high school ; without such a 
program, he would just as well, if not better, retain such an or- 
ganization as he has. 

Obstacles to the Junior High School 

Among the obstacles to the organization of junior high schools 
are several that in time will be removed as inevitably as they 
arise, and several others that will remain, to be more or less off- 
set by advantages. In the first group is the fact that a number of 
States so define elementary and secondary education that there 
is no legal sanction for a third type composed of grades taken 
from each of the others. This is the case in California; but there 
the obstacle is overcome by paying each teacher in the interme- 
diate schools from funds designed for the grade or grades in 
which he does his work. Because of the growth and success of 
these schools in California, the legislature is likely to follow the 
recommendation of the commissioners of secondary and of voca- 
tional education and provide legally for the organization of sepa- 
rate schools consisting of grades T to 9 or v to 12. Inasmuch as 
the legal obstacle now existing in various States arose from the 
demands of another situation, there is likely to be small difficulty 
in securing, where necessary, legislation permitting junior high 
schools. Objections to the junior-high-school plan have in a num- 
ber of cases come from principals of elementary schools that lose 
the two upper grades and from teachers of those grades who are 
not qualified for the junior high school and who "would regard 
the dignity of their position as lowered if put into lower grades." 
These objections have, of course, been silenced as the new or- 
ganization has been completed; if they are not powerful enough 
to prevent the creation of a junior high school, they are likely 
to harm it less and less as the months pass. Another objection 
which is likely to be temporary, but which until it passes should 
be overcome by some compromise, is the fact that the organi- 
zation of one or more junior high schools is likely to cause a 
longer walk for some of the children in both the upper and the 
lower grades. For some children in the upper grades the longer 
daily journey is likely to be more than offset by the shorter jour- 
ney for a larger number; and for the youngest children Supt. 
Francis suggests that a primary school of the first, second, and 



12 THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 

possibly third grades be retained in or near the building to be 
devoted to the junior high school. Even in Los Angeles, where 
the new organization is most flourishing, there are still com- 
promises, in the secondary as well as in the elementary schools. 

One obstacle to the junior high school, as to almost any other 
educational improvement, is the likelihood that it will increase 
the budget. It is difficult to secure accurate information as to the 
cost of items of expenditure for schools ; of 167 who, in answer 
to the questionnaire say that they have one or more junior high 
schools, only 30 report the items regarding cost ;and 17 of these 
say that the junior high school costs more per capita (the amount 
spent for maintenance and operation divided by the average num- 
ber of pupils attending) than the first six grades ; 7 say that the 
cost is the same; and 6 qualify their answers. Comparing the 
cost with that of the high school, 10 say that it is the same, and 
20 that it is less. Supt. Francis estimates that the per capita cost 
of the junior high school will be intermediate between that of 
the elementary school and that of the high school. The increased 
cost over the elementary school, though a real, is not a logical 
objection, for, as Supt. Holland, of Louisville, Ky., has pointed out 
in his anuual report, the distribution of funds between the ele- 
mentary and the secondary schools is seldom determined by fun- 
damental reasons. If, as is general, secondary education is likely 
to cost two or three times as much as elementary, it is only rea- 
sonable that the increase be gradual, instead of coming with 
great suddenness at the end of the eighth grade. A reason for 
increased cost that shows a real economy is suggested by the 
claim, which is, in all but a few cases, sound ; that the junior 
high schools retain many children from one to four years longer 
in the school system. If, as is also claimed, probably with ex- 
cellent reason, the number of "repeaters" is decreased, there is a 
credit partly to offset the increased debit. 

Junior high schools are likely to be handicapped for the present 
by the lack of specially prepared teachers and by the inappropri- 
ateness of most of the existing textbooks. As the demands in- 
crease, however, they will unquestionably be satisfied. Thus far 
the teachers for the new unit have been selected from both the 
elementary and the high schools; under the California law this 
was imperative, and in other States it seemed wise to use the 
superior skill of the best grammar-grade teachers in those sub- 
jects of which they had a mastery and to introduce teachers from 
the regular high school for such other subjects as Latin and 
composite mathematics. But now teachers are in several ways 
being especially prepared for the junior high school. At least 
one of the largest colleges of education is offering courses lead- 
ing to this end, and several cities independently are developing 
their own teachers. Rochester, N. Y., for instance, in anticipa- 
tion of four junior high schools, has offered weekly work in the 
several subjects that will be introduced ; from those successfully 
taking the courses, a number of the teachers for the new schools 
will be selected. From the 1,528 teachers reported in an incom- 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN \6 

pleted tabulation as giving instruction in junior high schools 
(1,189 full time, 439 part time), 581 had previous experience in 
both elementary and secondary schools, 209 in secondary schools 
alone, and 642 in elementary schools alone. This means that 
only about 6 per cent of the teachers now in junior high schools 
were without experience when they were selected; nearly two- 
thirds of this small number came directly from college, the re- 
mainder from normal schools. Although data concerning the 
sex of the teachers were not requested, it is obvious from the re- 
ports that in the first years of the junior high school there is a 
considerably larger proportion of men than is found in the sev- 
enth and eighth grades of the grammar school. 

A more fundamental objection has been raised by Director W. 
C. Bagley (School and Home Education, Oct., 1914). Admitting 
that "the advantages are clearly on the side of a six-six organi- 
zation from the point of view of administration expediency and 
to a large extent from the standpoint of educational theory," he 
doubts the wisdom of early differentiation, in that children may 
fail to a get "a common basis of certain ideas and ideals and stand- 
ards which go a long way toward insuring social solidarity — 
a basis of common thought and common aspiration which is ab- 
solutely essential to an effective democracy." "Stratified society," 
he thinks, may "encourage the development of social groups that 
can not understand one another because they lack a common 
basis of knowledge, ideal, and aspiration." This objection will 
have weight in proportion to the belief that the present educa- 
tional organization results in social solidarity. Representing the 
other point of view is Prof. E. V. D. Robinson's statement 
(School Review, XX, 677) that "we cannot forever go on sacri- 
ficing educational efficiency to a fetish of equality represented 
by a uniform course of study." 



STATISTICS OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 

Professor Briggs prints a table giving answers received to a 
questionnaire which he sent to superintendents of schools in every 
city in the United States of 2,500 population or over. There were 
977 replies. "Of course, 843 have no junior high schools, 159 gave 
no reasons for having none; of the remaining 684, 232 have none 
because of a preference for the usual organization, 184 because 
of the probable increase in cost, 10 because the school system is 
too small, 58 because the buildings are unsuited or their teachers 
are not adequately prepared, and 232 because of other adminis- 
trative reasons.' A number of the superintendents, as will be 
noted, gave two or three reasons." 

Eighty-three cities are listed in Professor Brigg's table. Of these, 
he states that twenty-six made no returns to the Commissioner of 
Education in 1914, and no enrollment is given for them in the table. 
Fourteen more give no enrollment. This leaves fortv-three cities 
with a total enrollment of 18,788. an average of 436.9. The num- 
ber of junior high schools in two of these forty-three cities was 



14 THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 

not given. If we leave out of consideration these two cities and 
their enrollment, we find that the table gives 41 cities, with 57 
schools and 17,780 enrollment. This is an average enrollment of 
432.32 per city and 312.04 per school- But it is worth while to 
note that the city of Los Angeles, Cal., contributes 6,000 pupils to 
the total. Deducting Los Angeles, the figures would be 40 cities, 
49 schools, 1.1,780 enrollment. This would give an average en- 
rollment of 294.05 per city, and 240.53 per school. 



EXPERIMENTAL JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL IN NEW YORK 

The Board of Education of New York and the trustees of 
Teachers College will conduct an experiment with a group of two 
hundred boys who will be given an opportunity to complete the work 
of the seventh, eighth and ninth grades in two years. The College 
gives the use of the Speyer School building, Lawrence St. near 
Amsterdam Ave. ; the services of Dr. Briggs, as educational advisor, 
and of several teachers. The balance of the corps of teachers will 
be provided by the Board of Education. The school will be opened 
on February 1st as an annex to Public School 43, Manhattan. v ' 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL IN NEW YORK CITY 
CHARLES S. HARTWELL. 

Eastern District High School 

New York City has long been alert and interested in this 
subject. Professor Briggs speaks of the movement toward an 
equal division of education between the elementary and the secon- 
dary schools as "initiated" by Dr. E. W. Lyttle, at the meeting 
of the National Education Association at Asbury Park, in 1905. 
In discussing Doctor Lyttle's paper at Asbury Park, in 1905, 
I said: "Equal division is feasible and is being made in New York 
City. There, departmental teaching in the last two years is done 
in 140 of the 500 schools. The Board of Education has just 
transferred many teachers to Public Schools Nos. 24 and 62 
in Manhattan, devoted exclusively to seventh and eighth year 
pupils. Dr. Maxwell, at the national superintendents' meeting 
last year, favored this division, and these intermediate schools 
are an entering wedge. 

"The consequences of this movement will be great. (1) 
The scheme of education will change from four quadrennial ta 
five triennial periods, for the first year of high school will 
connect with these two years, and the previous and succeeding 
six years will be equally subdivided. (2) Many pupils will get 
a ninth or additional year. (3) The college course will be re- 
duced a year. At the Boston meeting in 1903, Dean West, of 
Princeton, advocated four years for the college course ; President 
Butler, two; Presidents Eliot and Harper stood for three; but 
nothing substantial by way of change has been accomplished. 
The reduction will probably come about in this way. (4) There 
will be great economy both of time and money by this equal 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 15 

division of the twelve years of school education." N. E. A. 
Proceedings, 1905, p. 436. 

In the first report of the committee of the N. E. A. on the 
equal division of the twelve years, in N. E. A. proceedings 
for 1907, Mr. Gilbert B. Morrison, Chairman, says, at page 707: 
"Another effect of the suggested change would be to provide 
departmental study for many who do not enter the high school. 
Some significant data on this question have been obtained by a 
questionnaire recently sent out by Mr. C. S. Hartwell, under 
the auspices of the Brooklyn, (N. Y.) Teachers' Association. Of 
the 362 answers to the question as to whether the extension of 
departmental methods downward would provide such methods 
for many who do not enter high school, 268 answered yes and 
9-4 answered no. The question was asked: 'Would you favor 
departmental teaching throughout the last three years of the 
grammar school at least in large cities?' Out of 451 answers, 
32-i answered Yes, and 127 answered No. The individual 
opinions of your committee stand in about the same proportion, 
the majority favoring departmental extension at least to the 
seventh and eighth grades, especially in the large cities.*" 

In N. E. A. Proceedings at Cleveland, for 1908, page 625, we 
read: "It is well to note that within the present year Mr. J. 
Edward Swanstrom, for some time President of the Board in 
Brooklyn, and later a member of the Board of Education of 
greater New York, published in the Brooklyn Eagle an argu- 
ment for the adoption of the six year course of elementary 
study to be followed by three years of work in the lower high 
schools, plus three years in the upper grade or specialized high 
schools. In that article, Mr. Swanstrom argues forcibly that his 
plan would not only increase the educational efficiency of the 
schools, but would be highly economical for the city of Greater 
New York. At least ten cities in the United States for several 
years, have employed the proposed six-year division and believe 
it to be more economical." 

In the sentence just quoted from Doctor Lyttle's report, 
we see he makes no claim to have "initiated" the "six-and-six 
plan." His powerful paper in 1905, gave a great impulse to a 
growing movement which has developed far more in the west 
than in the east. The entire report of Doctor Lyttle's committee, 
of which our own Mr. Denbigh of the Morris High School was 
a member, should be carefully read by thoughtful educators. 
The second recommendation of this committee is that 30 per cent, 
of the pupil's time in the seventh and eighth years be devoted 
to elective studies "which the best pedagogic thought and prac- 
tice approve." The fourth, recommends that "promotions be by 
units of work accomplished rather than by years, therebv per- 
mitting the shortening or the lengthening of the time in which 
the course, nominally of six years, may be completed by pupils 
of varying ability." 

_ That New York City has taken an active interest in the 
junior high school is shown in the third report of the committee 
on a six vear course of sttidv, rer'd'^'C'l -<- "p : - -< - - ■ 



16 THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 

Gilbert B. Morrison of St. Louis. He says at page 501, of N. E. A. 
Proceedings for 1909: "During the past year a vigorous inquiry 
into the actual situation in the seventh and eighth grades in the 
schools of this country has been in progress by committees of 
the New York and Brooklyn Teachers' Associations. Inasmuch 
as the question of six-year courses turns largely on changes in 
these grades, the results of such an inquiry are important." 

The statistics on page 501 and 502, N. E. A. Proceedings, 
1909, confirm the work of New York's citizens and reveal the 
drift toward reorganization. Mr. Morrison's report closes thus : 
"We believe that the reorganization of the public school system 
along the lines of this discussion is of fundamental importance, 
and that every reasonable measure that can be taken to overcome 
the inertia of the established system and to make for an organi- 
zation more in consonance with advanced educational opinions 
and with the needs of modern society should be employed. The 
problem involves not only division by years, but a well-digested 
curriculum of both the elementary and secondary branches. This 
curriculum should (a) provide the content of the work, including 
vocational studies; (b) establish the points of differentiation; 
(c) consider methods of teaching and plans for promotion of 
pupils." 

The reports of the New York and Brooklyn committees for 
1909-10, show conclusively that the junior high school is steadily 
advancing. I believe with Mr. Swanstrom that the six-and-six 
plan is both educational and economical. It is more valuable 
to adopt in New York City than the Gary system, and I hope 
will be more carefully studied. Its greatest enemy is the 
unwillingness to separate the seventh and eighth year pupils 
from those of lower grades. But high standards will prepare 
the public for really useful changes in the schools of the future. 



THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 

A Remedy for Evils Existing in Our Present System 

OF EDUCATIOn. 

JOSEPH ABELSON 

High Sehool of Commerce 

There appears to be great discontent with our present school 
system. Not only the educator, but also the clergy and the lay- 
man, is taking an active part in this clamor against our system of 
education. What ails our schools and what can we do to remedy 
its ailments? This is the keynote of the problem. 

The first question that we should ask ourselves is, ''What is the 
trouble with our system of education as it now stands?" Among 
others some of the more serious defects may be stated as follows : 

1. Proper provision is not made for the student who drops out 
of school at the end of the eighth year — at the completion of the 
elementary school course. 

2. Pupils are retarded unnecessarily through promotion by 
grades rather than by subjects. This affects both the slow pupil 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN tf 

and the pupil of superior ability. 

3. There is too large a "student mortality" at the close of th« 
elementary school course — at the age of fourteen. The pupil com- 
pletes his elementary education just when the compulsory education 
law loses its hold (the completion of the elementary school course 
is regarded by the parents as the "natural stopping place" of edu- 
cation). 

4. High school or secondary education is begun too late — at 
the age of fourteen. Noted psychologists and educators agree that 
it should begin at the age of twelve — at the beginning of 
adolescence. 

5. We are devoting too long a time to elementary education, 
There is a considerable waste of time in elementary education. 
Eight years seem to be too long for this branch of education. 
This period should prepare for education — it is not education 
itself. 

6. There is too sharp a change between the elementary school 
and the high school — a student fails to make a proper adjustment 
in the high school; in consequence he begins to fail in his work, 
and becomes disheartened and discouraged long before he reaches 
his second high school year. Worst of all, however, he drops out 
because he has failed. 

How can we remedy these defects so as to make our school sys- 
tem of greater advantage to the student and his future? The answer 
to this question is — by the adoption of the "six-six plan." By 
the six-six plan is meant the division of our school into six ele- 
mentary grades and six high school grades. This means that the 
elementary course is reduced to six years and the other six years 
are devoted to high school work. The first three years of 
this second six year period has an organization of its own — the 
junior high school — as well as the last three years — the senior high 
school, or high school proper. 

Several cities have had many features of the junior high school 
for a number of years, even though they were not designated as 
such schools. Kalamazoo, Michigan, has followed the plan for 
about twenty-five years ; Worcester, Mass., since 1898 ; Fort Scott, 
Kansas, Muncie, Ind., and Fresno, Cal., have had essentially this 
organization for the past fifteen years. 

The term, junior high school, however, is a more recent prod- 
uct. Crawfordsville, Ind., organized a junior high school in 1907; 
Ogden, Utah, in 1908. Among others of the pioneers may be 
mentioned Columbus, Ohio, and Madison, Ind., in 1909, Berkeley, 
Cal., and Concord, N. H., in 1910, and Los Angeles in 1911. The 
latest recruit is Rochester, New York, whose junior high school 
threw open its doors at the beginning of the 1915-16 school year. 

The following is a list of cities in which the junior high school 
now exists: 

Austin, Minn. Chanute, Kan. 

Berkeley, Cal. Chico. Cal. 

Bismarck, N. D. Clinton, Iowa 

Bristol, Va. Columbia, Tenn. 



18 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 



Concord, N. H. 
Columbus, Ohio 
Crawfordsville, Ind. 
Crookston, Minn. 
Curwensville, Pa. 
Dayton, Ohio 
De Pere, Wis. 
Detroit, Mich. 
East Aurora, 111. 
Evansville, Ind. 
Faribault, Minn. 
Fort Scott, Kan. 
Fresno, Cal. 
Grafton, N. D. 
Grand Rapids, Mich. 
Hays, Kansas 
Houston, Texas 
Hutchinson, Kan. 
Kalamazoo, Mich. 
Lewiston, Idaho 
Madison, Wis. 
Manhattan, Kan. 
Manitowac, Wis. 
Mohnton, Pa. 
Muncie, Ind. 



Muskegee, Okla. 
Neodesha, Kan. 
New Kensington, Pa. 
Newton, Kan. 
Norwalk, Conn. 
Oakland, Cal. 
Ogden, Utah 
Palo Alto, Cal. 
Quincy, 111. 
Rhinelander, Wis. 
Richmond, Ind. 
Rochester, Minn. 
Rochester, N. Y. 
Salt Lake City, Utah 
San Antonio, Texas 
Santa Anna, Cal. 
Santa Rosa, Cal. 
Seymour, Ind. 
Solvay, N. Y. 
Topeka, Kansas 
Trenton, N. J. 
Webster, N. D. 
Winfield, Kan. 
Worcester, Mass. 



In some of the following cities the junior high school is being 
considered, while in others it will be put in operation next year. 



Atlantic City, N. J. 
Bevery, Mass 
Bayonne, N. J. 
Camden, N. J. 
Danville, Va. 
East Orange, N. J. 
Elizabeth, N. J. 
Goshen, Ind. 
Jackson, Mich. 
Kansas City, Kan. 



Minot, N. D. 
Little Rock, Ark- 
New Bedford, Mass. 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
Portland, Ore. 
River Falls. Wis. 
Roanoke, Va. 
Saginaw, Mich. 
Walla Walla, Wash. 
Wichita, Kan. 



How will this division of our school remedy the defects men- 
tioned above? Consider the first defect — the lack of proper ad- 
justment for the pupil who drops out on the completion of the 
elementary school course, which leads him nowhere, neither to the 
high school nor to the industrial or commercial world. To remedy 
this defect the junior high school offers a number of different 
courses to the boy or girl on graduation from the elementary school 
— on completion of the six year elementary school course. Com- 
mercial courses, vocational courses, household arts courses, (for 
girls), agricultural courses, literary and general culture courses 
are offered. No pupil is assigned to any one of the courses men- 
tioned until the home has been consulted, the entire report-card of 
th pupil in the elementary course studied and the judgment of the 
present teacher secured. In this way the capacities and the needs 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 19 

of the pupils are discovered. For example, for the pupil whose 
goal is the college, the general cultural course is chosen; or for 
the boy of a constructive frame of mind, a vocational course is 
selected. 

In this way the pupil will realize that he is pursuing work that 
is to his taste — in which he is interested — and will follow it be- 
cause he likes it. If now, after the completion of the junior high 
school, the pupil feels that home conditions will not permit his enter- 
ing into the senior high school, or if for any other reason he desires 
to drop out — when he is of fifteen years of age — he does so with 
a feeling that he has succeeded ; not with the idea that he has been 
a failure. This will aid greatly in the building of his character. 
He will have attained at least sufficient training from the course 
pursued with which to enter the ranks of the industrial, commercial 
or agricultural world and will have a good idea of what will be 
expected of him in life. 

The second defect — the retardation of pupils unnecessarily 
through promotion by grades, rather than by subjects — may be also 
remedied by the junior high school. This is really one of the most 
indefensible of modern practices — to compel a boy or girl to re- 
peat the entire work of the grade because he or she has failed in 
two or three subjects — and is the method now employed in the 
seventh and eighth grades of our elementary schools. And yet, 
had he failed only in arithmetic he would have been advanced in 
all subjects — an entire grade. To allow a pupil to advance in a 
subject beyond his powers simply because he has done well in other 
subjects, is as unpedagogical as to oblige him to repeat subjects in 
which he is proficient because he has failed in others. 

The junior high school plan does away with these unpedagogical 
methods. Under this plan a pupil is promoted in every subject 
in which he obtains at least a passing grade and is obliged to repeat 
every subject in which he is deficient. This scheme does indeed 
encourage a pupil to do better work, for he realizes that in order 
to be advanced a full grade it is necessary for him to be proficient 
in all the subjects of the present grade. As for the poor student — 
the student of inferior ability — the junior high school plan enables 
him to maintain his balance in his studies. 

The junior high school will also remedy the third defect men- 
tioned — the "large student mortality" at the close of the elementary 
school course. The junior high school shifts to a less dangerous pe- 
riod the change of school, which now occurs just when the compul- 
sory education law takes its hand off the pupil. Instead of making the 
change of schools at this time — when the pupil is fourteen — it does 
so when he is twelve years old ; then he has at least two years more 
of education as a compulsory attending pupil. 

This results in keeping a large number of pupils in school for an 
additional year. Desire to remain and graduate with their class 
or to carry a study to the point where it may be used as an earning 
capacity, will keep in school a majority of those who would other- 
wise drop out at the completion of the eighth grade. Statistics 
support this. New Bedford, Mass., has had a junior high school 



20 THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 

since 1912. The attendance in the seventh grade has increased 
£rom 287 to 522. In the same time the attendance in the eighth 
grade has increased from 214 to 322. 

Principal Clark of the Berkeley Intermediate School (term used 
instead of junior high school, Berkeley, Cal.,) furnished data show- 
ing that since the establishment of the school 94.73 per cent, of 
the pupils completing the eighth grade have entered the ninth, and 
95.29 per cent, of those completing the ninth grade have entered 
the tenth. Principal Preston, of the Franklin Intermediate School, 
(Berkeley, Cal.), reports that of the last seven classes completing the 
eighth grade under the old organization 40.53 per cent, entered the 
high school, and that of the first six classes completing the eighth 
grade of the intermediate school there entered the ninth grade of 
the same school 65.53 per cent. Principal Stetson states that 86 
per cent, of the pupils in the eighth grade in the Grand Rapids 
junior high school in 1913 entered the senior high school, as com- 
pared with 76 per cent, of the eighth year in grammar schools of 
the city. In Evansville, Ind., Principal Wiles states that only 56 
per cent, of the pupils completing the eighth grade in 1913 entered 
the high school, as against 84 per cent, in 1913 of the pupils in the 
junior high school. 

In New York City, where the compulsory period extends up to the 
fourteenth birthday, such schools would offer splendid opportunities 
for usefulness. 

The fourth serious defect of our present school system is the 
practice of beginning the secondary or high school education in 
the child's life at the age of fourteen. 

To remedy this evil, the junior high school takes the pupil under 
its roof at the age of twelve, which is a period of "fulminating 
psychic expansion." Distinguished psychologists and educators 
agree that this is the age at which secondary education should begin 
— at the beginning of adolescence. The divisions of time under 
the junior high school plan correspond to the changes in the life of 
the child. The age at which the pupil enters the junior high school 
is the critical moment of his life, when the mental, moral, physi- 
cal and spiritual life of the child undergoes marvelous changes. 
At the age of twelve the impulse of adolescence are driving the 
child to new interests, ambitions and activities. This is the time 
when "individuality begins to assert itself-" 

The junior high school takes these vital changes of the adol- 
escence into consideration, by its differentiation and selection of 
courses which appeal to the adolescent youth. It takes account of 
"the nature and appeal at the dawn of the 'teen which makes the 
pubescent ferment." The vocational subjects, commercial subjects, 
agricultural subjects and the like offered by the curriculum of the 
junior high school cater to this transformation period through 
which the adolescent is passing. At this early age the study of 
a foreign language is begun (in most of the European countries the 
study of a foreign language is begun at the age of nine) and can 
be continued for a longer time than at present. In this way it is 
possible to learn the language by the natural and direct methods. 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 21 

Noted educators are of the opinion that a foreign language is better 
acquired at the age of twelve than at fourteen. At any rate, it is 
best to begin the study at an earlier period, if it is to become a 
working tool. 

The junior high school then means the beginning of the second- 
ary education. 

The waste of time in elementary education — the fifth defect of our 
present system of education — is also remedied by the junior high 
school. Eight years is too long a time for this branch of education. 
Under the junior high school plan, only six years are devoted to 
elementary education — sufficient time for this period. The six-year 
elementary school preceding the junior high school, gives the 
"tools of education" proposed by ex-state inspector of education, 
E. W. Lyttle. These "tools of education" are: 

1. The ability to read a news item of an ordinary newspaper. 

2. The ability to express in words the thoughts gained from 
reading. 

3. The ability to express in writing the thoughts gained from 
reading or from conversation- 

4. The ability to express, however, imperfectly, concrete objects 
by drawings. 

5. The ability to perform arithmetical computations to long divi- 
sion and fractions. 

In addition to these "tools of education," the six-year school 
period presents to the pupil "somewhat of a sympathetic know- 
ledge of the city, state and national governments, and the elementary 
things about sanitation which everybody needs to know, not only 
to protect themselves as individuals but to protect society as well" 

In other words, the junior high school plan "cuts out" the waste 
of time in elementary education by giving the pupil the most im- 
portant subjects and the most important topics — the "tools of edu- 
cation" which will prepare him for further school work. 

The last of the six serious defects of our system of education 
as it now stands — the sharp change between the elementary school 
and the high school — is also remedied by the junior high school. 

Methods of presentation of the different subjects of the courses 
of study are so different in the elementary school and the high 
school that it is very difficult for the student to make a proper 
adjustment in the high school. And, as a result of this sudden 
change of method and subject matter the student begins to fail in 
his work, he becomes disheartened and discouraged and leaves be- 
fore he reaches the second high school year. 

The junior high school makes easier the transition between the 
elementary school and the high school in that it acts as a medium 
between these two types of schools. Under the junior high school 
plan high school subjects are introduced into this school, together 
with modified high school mehtods of teaching these subjects. This 
means that the junior high school reaches lower into the school 
work of the child and by giving him a "life interest" attempts to 
brinsr him safely over the break between the grammar school and 
the high school. In this way the junior high school becomes a 



22 THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 

connecting link between the elementary school and the high school — 
it bridges the gap between the grades and the high school. 

The junior high school offers itself as a three-year transition 
period between elementary and secondary education in which time 
the student becomes adjusted to high school conditions and methods 
of study. During this period he can determine for himself whether 
or not he is suited for higher education. It is really a "tryout 
period" in which the pupil's capacities and abilities are determined. 
It shapes the work of the pupil in such a way that it is a unit within 
itself, which can, if necessary, be terminated at the end of the ninth 
year. 

Not only does the junior high school remedy the ailments of the 
existing educational system, but it also has a number of distinct 
advantages over the present system. Of the more important ad- 
vantages of the junior high school may be mentioned the following : 

1. It simplifies the problem with repeaters, since the child is 
required to go over the second time only that work in which he has 
failed, that is, we have promotion by subjects. 

2. It keeps a large number of pupils in school for an additional 
year. (At least one year after the compulsory education law loses 
its effect). 

3. It gives some option to pupils as to subjects studied — a 
"modified system of elections." 

4. The junior high school reduces the number of "educational 
misfits" by means of the three-year "tryout" period. 

5. Pupils are given the advantage of being taught by specially 
trained teachers with special methods of teaching. 

G. The junior high school plan permits the student to complete 
the six-year high school course (junior and senior high school) in 
five years, thereby gaining a year. 

7. The junior high school results in a better grouping of pupils, 
hence better discipline. 

8. It furnishes an opportunity for various educational reforms. 

9. The junior high school equalizes the opportunities between 
the grammar and the high school pupils. 

10. The junior high school brings secondary instruction nearer 
to the homes of the pupils, and thus reaches a larger number of 
the pupils. 

The junior high school, which is a definite and constructive at- 
tempt to meet these pressing educational problems of to-day, is the 
coming thing in school organization. 



A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 

Compiled by Joseph Abelson 
High School of Commerce 

Junior high school, Evansville. Educator-Journal, 12: 
219. 

Junior high schools. Educator-Journal, 15 :237. 



Aiton, G. B. — Principles underlying the making of courses of 
study for secondary schools ; School Review 6 :369. 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 23 

Angell, J. R. — The duplication of school work by the college. 
School Review, 21 :1. 

Angell, J. R. — The junior college movement in high school. 
School Review, 23:289. 

Armstrong, J. E. — Limited segregation : School Review 14 : 726. 
1906. 

Ayres, L. P. — The organization of intermediate schools or junior 
high schools : In his, The public schools of Springfield, 111. 
Division of Education, Russel Sage Foundation, N. Y. C. 
(1914) P177. 

Ayres, L. P. — Laggards in our public schools. New York. 

Bachman, F. P. — The intermediate school. — Board of Estimate 
and Apportionment. Final Report. Committee on School 
Inquiry, City of New York, 1911-13. 2 :463. 

Bagley, W. C. — Principles justifying common elements in the 
school program. School and home education 34 :119. 

Bagley, W. G. — The "six-six" plan: School and Home Educa- 
tion 34:79. 

Baillet, T. M. — Time limit of secondary education : Educational 
Review 25 :433. 

Baillet, T. M. — Saving of time in elementary and secondary 
schools: Proceedings of the National Education Associa- 
tion 1903:317. 

Baker, J. H — Economy of time in education: United States 
Bureau of Education. Bulletin No. 38—1913:60. 

Bolton, F. E. — National Conference on Secondary Education: 
Northwestern University, 1904 :68. 

Bower, Ray- — Reorganization of the grades and the high school: 
Wyoming School Journal 9 :243. 

Boynton, F. D. — A six year high school course : Educational- 
Review 20:515. 

Breitweiser, J. V. — The gap between the grades and the high 
school : Colorado School Journal 28 :22. 

Briggs, T. H.— Secondary education : Report of the United States 
Commissioner of Education, 1914, vol. 1, chap. 6:135. 

Brooklyn Teachers Association— The grading and promotion of 
pupils: Report of the President, 1908-1909. 

Brooklyn Teachers Association — The pre-academic school : Re- 
port of the President 1909-1910. 

Brooks, S. D. — Electives in the high school : School Review 
9:593 

Brown, E. E. — The making of our middle schools. New York 
1902. 

Brown, H. A.— The functions of the secondary school : Educa- 
tional Review, October, 1914. 

Brown, H. E. — A plan for the reorganization of the American 
secondary schools: School Review 22:289. 

Brown, J. F. — The American high school. New York, 1909. 

Brown, J. S. — Joliet Township high school : School Review, 
9 :417. 



24 THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 

Brown, J. S. — In what respects should the high school be modi- 
fied to meet the demands of the twentieth century?: School 
Review, (September, 1904.) 12:563. 

Brown, J. S. — The extended high school : School Review 14 :66. 

Brubacher, A. R. — Some readjustments in secondary education: 
Education, June, 1914. 

Bunker, F. F. — The reorganization of our school grades : Wash- 
ington Education Association, Addresses and Proceedings. 
1909:36. 

Bunker, F. F. — Better articulation of the public school system: 
Educational Review, March, 1914, 47 :249. 

Bunker, F. F. — A plan for the reorganization of the schools at 
Berkeley: Sierra Education News 5:13. 

Butler, N. M.— Scope and function of secondary education: 
Educational Review 15 :15. 

Buttrick, H. E. — True function of the evening high school: 
School Review, September, 1904. 12:588. 

California — State Board of Education. Problems of the inter- 
mediate school : Report of the Commissioner of Secondary 
Schools/June 30, 1914, p. 19. 

Carey, C. P. — The six and six plan of school organization: Re- 
port of State Department of Education, Madison, Wisconsin, 
1914. 

City Club of New York — A suggested readjustment of the years 
of the public schools of New York City : October, 1908. 

City Club of New York — A suggested readjustment of the years 
of the public schools of New York City. Opinions of edu- 
cators and others. January, 1909. 

Columbus, Ohio— Board of Education. Junior high schools: 
Annual Report, 1909:28; 169,200. 

Columbus, Ohio — Board of Education. Junior high schools: 
Annual Report, 1911 :155. 

Compayre, J. — Reform in secondary education in France : Educa- 
tional Review, 35:130. 

Cox, P. W. L. — The junior high school. (Solvay, N. Y.). Edu- 
cational Administration and Supervision, Nov., 1915. 

Coy, E. W.— Readjustment of the high school curriculum : Pro- 
ceedings of the National Education Association, 1903:177. 

Davis, C. O — The subject matter and administration of the six- 
three plan of school, in Bulletin of the University of 
Michigan, New Series, Sept., 1915. 

Davis, C. O. — Principles and plans for reorganizing secondary 
education : in Johnston, High School Education, p. 67. 

De Garmo. C. — Principles of secondary education. New York, 
1913- P. 324. 

Dewey, John — -High school of the future: School Review, 1903. 

Dewey, John— Shortening the years of elementary schooling. 
School Review, 11 :17. 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 25 

Dexter, E. G. — A history of education in the United States, 

New York, 1914. 
Douglass, A. — Present status of the junior high school: 
Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1915. 

Dutton and Snedden — Administration of public education in the 
United States. New York, 1912. 

EUot, C. W. — Shortening and enriching the grammar school 
course. Proceedings of the National Education Association, 
1892, p. 617. 

Eliot, C. W — Tendencies of secondary education : Educational 
Review, 14:14. 

Fertig, J. W. — Is not a six year elementary course preferable?: 
Southern Education Association. Proceedings, 1913 :52. 

Foster, W. L. — Physiological age as a basis for classification of 
pupils entering high school : Psychological Clinic, May, 
1910. 

Francis, J. H. — Reorganizing our school system : Proceedings 
of the National Education Association, 1912 :368. 

Gordy, J. P. — A broader elementary education. 

Hall, G. S. — Adolescence. 

Hall, G. S. — Educational problems vol. 2, chap. 23. 

Hall, G. S. — The high school as the people's college. Pedagogical 
Seminary, 9 :63. 

Hanus, P. H. — Secondary education. Educational Review, 
17 :346. 

Harper, W. R. — High school of the future. School Review, 11 :1. 

Harris, J. H. — The six-six plan. Journal of Education, 81 :89 ; 
102. 

Hartwell, C. S. — The grading and promotion of pupils. Pro- 
ceedings of the National Education Association (Depart- 
ment of Superintendence, Indianapolis, Ind.) March, 1910: 
156. 

Hartwell, C. S — The grading and promotion of pupils : Educa- 
tional Review, November, 1910. 

Hartwell, C. S. — Liberating the lower education : School Review, 
June, 1907. 

Hartwell, C. S.— Promotion by subjects and three year courses: 
School Review, March, 1907. 

Hartwell, C. S. — Economy in education. Educational Review, 
30:159. 

Hedgepeth, W. B. — The six year plan at Goshen, Indiana : School 
Review, 13:19. 

Hill, C. H. — The junior high school. Bulletin of the Missouri 
State Normal School at Springfield, vol. 10, No. 3, Oct., 1915. 

Hines, L. N. — The six and six plan of Crawfordsville, Indiana: 
American School Board Journal, 44:14. 

Hoejke, J. C. — The six year high school plan in action : American 
Schoolmaster, 5 :25. 

Hood, W. R. — Junior and senior high schools: United States 
Commissioner of Education Report, 1912, V. 1, P. 133. 

Horn, P. W. — The junior high school in Houston, Texas. Ele- 
mentary School Teacher. 16:91, 



26 THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 

Hosic, J. C. — The junior high school. Educational Bi-Monthly, 

Dec, 1915:175. 
Hyatt, E. — An intermediate school. Western Journal of Educa- 
tion, 20:1. 
Johnston, C. H. — The junior high school. Journal of Adminis- 
tration and Supervision, March, 1915. 
Johnston, C. H. — The junior high school. High School Educa- 
tion, N. Y., 1912, P. 86. 
Jones, A. J. — The continuation school in the United States. 

United States Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 1, 1907. 
Josselyn, H. W. — Relation of high school to elementary school: 

in Johnston, the modern high school, N. Y., 1914, Ch. 5. 
Judd, C. H. — Meaning of secondary education. School Review, 

21:11. 
Judd, C. H. — The junior high school. School Review, 23 :25. 
Keeler, F. L. — The six year plan: Bulletin of the State of 

Michigan, Dept. of Public Instruction, July, 1914. 
King, I. — High school age. 
Kinkead, R. G. — The Columbus idea of the six and six plan : 

Ohio Teacher, 35 :248. 
Leavitt, jF. M. — The six-three-three plan: Manual Training, 

and Vocational Education, 16 :240. 
Liddeke, F. — Extension of the high school course : School 

Review, 12:635. 
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Lyttle, T. W. — The six year's course of study. Proceedings of 

the National Education Association, 1908 :625. 
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State Board of Education of the State of New Jersey, 1913. 
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school between the district and the high school : Proceedings 

of the National Education Association, 1907 :705. 
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National Education Association, 1909 :498. 
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on School Organization, 1910. 
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school. Division of Reference and Research, semi-annual 

report, July, 1915. 
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1912, Ch. 17-19. 
Perry, A. C. — Outlines of school administration. New York, 1912, 

Ch. 13. 



THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 27 

Robinson, E. V. — Reorganization of the grades and the high 

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the survey of the public schools of Oregon. Chap. 9, 1913. 
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28 THE H. S. T. A. BULLETIN 

can School Board Journal, 47 :30. 
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BACK NUMBERS OF THE BULLETIN. 

The Association has on hand a number of copies of several issues of the 
Bulletin. Members may obtain copies on application; to other persons, the 
price is 6 cents per copy. The list is as follows: 

No. 45: Directory of High Schools of New York City, May 1914 

No. 48-49: Report on the Vocational and Continuation Schools of 
Munich, Henry E. Fritz, Ph. D. 

Fundamental Principles Determining the Selection of Reading Texts in 
Modern Languages, J. B. E. Jonas, Ph. D. 

Nos. 5 1-52: Report of Committee on the Investigation of Stenography 
and Typewriting in New York City High Schools 

Commercial Algebra Course in the High School of Commerce, W. S. 
Schlauch 

Nos. 53-54: The Reorganization of Secondary Education, Dr. P. P. 
Claxton, U. S. Commissioner of Education 

Report of the Committee on Co-operation of the Association of High 
School Teachers of English of New York City 

Direct Method in Latin at the Jamaica High School, Edward C. 
Chickering 

No. 55: The Carnegie Foundation Report on Teachers Pensions 

No 5 6: Education Under the Proposed Constitution of 1915, contains 
opinions by Seth Low and George D. Blauvelt, members of the Convention 

No. 5 7: Memorial number for Superintendent D. L. Bardwell 

List of Members by Schools, 1914-1915. 

No. 58: Organization of City School Systems, Thomas E. Finegan, 
Assistant Commissioner of Education 

Relation of the State and City in Regard to Schools, Prof. Ernest C. 
Moore, Harvard University 

Send requests to the president of the Association, Alex. L. Pugh, 155 
West 65 th Street, Manhattan. 

Additional copies of this number of the Bulletin may be obtained as 
above or from Chas. S. Hartwell, 234 Willoughby Ave., Brooklyn, who is 
chairman of the Committee on Junior High Schools. 

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